Raven's Guide to Special Education: Disabilities

Disabilities - 5

Summary | PDD | ED | HI | MR | MD |
OHI | OI | SLD | ADHD | SLI | TBI | VI

Specific learning disabilities

Learning disabilities is a term that is used to describe a variety of related information-processing problems rather than a singular disorder. In the past, terms such as dyslexia, minimum brain dysfunction, and hyperactivity have been used to characterize these problems. There is little knowledge about what actually causes learning disabilities although many researchers think there is a neurological basis for this condition.

Researchers have identified many kinds of learning disabilities, but federal regulations recognize only seven areas: oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematics calculation, and mathematics reasoning. There has been little agreement on the defining characteristics of children with learning disabilities, although there is some agreement that these children generally have information- processing problems, show wide discrepancies in their functioning, are able to do certain things at or above the normal level of achievement, and are able to do other things only at a much lower level.

Students are presumed to have a learning disability when evaluators are unable to link their academic and information-processing problems to other causes. These students are a diverse group, they more commonly are male, and they usually have average or near-average intelligence. Their most commonly reported problems are poor academic achievement, impulsivity, short attention span, distractibility, motor and coordination problems, hyperactivity, memory deficits, and social or personal adjustment problems. The extent to which an individual student has these problems can vary greatly.

Learning disabled students may be slow in starting classroom or homework assignments and have difficulty continuing to attend once they begin a task. They have difficulty selecting the most important information to attend to. When faced with problems, they often will respond impulsively with the first alternative they think of rather than considering a number of alternatives and picking the most appropriate one.

They may read at a slower rate than their non-disabled classmates and have difficulty comprehending what they read or identifying the most important information in a reading passage. Many have poor handwriting and writing skills. They are inconsistent or incorrect in applying the mechanics of writing, such as punctuation and capitalization. They may be poor spellers and have difficulty organizing and writing related information. They may use incorrect operations to solve math problems or show great difficulty in solving word problems. Their math problems often are related to difficulties attending and reading.

They tend to have ineffective learning strategies that are apparent when they study, take notes and attempt to organize information. They may have limited interpersonal skills, a lack of self-confidence and a dependency upon others.

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder

An increasing number of children are being medically diagnosed as having attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADD and ADHD). Although some students with ADD/ADHD are served under IDEA, it is not a discrete disability category. These children often do not qualify for special education services; however, they frequently are unable to make adequate progress within the regular school program without special help. When they are found to be eligible for special education, they often are identified as learning disabled, emotionally disabled, or other health impaired.

Typical characteristics of ADD/ADHD

Short attention span
Poor planning and judgment
Poor impulse control
Hyperactivity
Poor school performance
Coordination problems
Social problems
Resistance to rules and discipline
Low self-esteem
Low frustration tolerance
Irritability
Moodiness
Immaturity

These children have difficulty listening to instructions and explanations. When presented with a task that becomes more difficult, they quickly lose interest and move on to something else. They usually are friendly and want to participate in social activities. They may, however, have difficulty getting along with others because of their inability to concentrate on tasks, take turns, follow rules and remain part of a group.

Those with hyperactivity seem to be constantly on the move, they get excited easily, they are impatient, and they seldom pause long enough to relax, to watch, or to listen to what is going on. They tend to rush into situations without purpose. They have a short attention span and they seem unable to screen out unimportant sights and sounds. They often get in the way of others without meaning to or without realizing that they are being disruptive. They may act aggressively when they are challenged or restricted.

Speech and language impairments

Students with communication disorders may have language impairments (either problems in understanding or using spoken language) or speech impairments (articulation disorders, stuttering, and voice disorders). The cause of speech and language problems often is unknown, but some causes include hearing loss, neurological disorders, brain injury, and physical impairments.

Students who have a receptive language impairment have difficulty understanding spoken language. These problems may be so mild that they go undetected or so severe that the student appears to understand almost nothing. These students often compensate for their lack of understanding by following what other students do.

Students who have difficulty understanding spoken language also have a hard time learning to talk, which results in expressive problems. Students with expressive language impairments may have a limited vocabulary, use fewer words than other students, or misunderstand the grammatical rules that other students the same age have learned. When the impairment is severe, such students may only use single words or phrases, not speak at all, or only use gestures.

Students with articulation disorders produce speech sounds that are significantly different from those of other students of the same age. They may leave out or distort sounds, add extra sounds, or substitute some sounds for others. Articulation problems range from mild to severe. Students with mild problems can be understood most or all the time, but they mispronounce some sounds or their speech seems like that of younger students. Students with severe articulation problems pronounce sounds so poorly that they cannot be understood by most people most of the time.

Students with voice disorders have problems with voice quality, pitch and loudness. Their speech sounds unusual most of the time. It may be very loud, very quiet, too deep, or monotone. It may sound hoarse, raspy, strained, or nasal. Stuttering is a speech impairment in which the rhythm of speech is abnormal. Students who stutter may prolong or repeat sounds or syllables or sometimes whole words. They may pause when speaking and struggle to say something. They may blink their eyes and look away when speaking.

Visual impairments

Eye disorders that can result in visual impairments include albinism, glaucoma, cataracts, eye muscle problems, and infections. The most frequent cause of blindness for those under the age of twenty is prenatal cataract (hereditary or due to maternal rubella). Other common causes are optic nerve atrophy and retrolental fibroplasia (resulting from excessive oxygen in the newborn). Most visually impaired children have useful vision. Many have difficulty in their conceptual development, especially spatial abilities. As the severity of their visual impairment increases, their skill in moving around in their environment (mobility) becomes more limited.

The effect of visual problems on a child’s development depends upon the severity, type of loss, age at which the problem occurred, and the overall functioning of the child. Evaluators typically classify visually impaired students as either blind or partially sighted. Partially sighted, or low vision students, have limited distance vision but often can see objects and written materials that are placed very close to their eyes. They may be able to learn through the use of visual materials if adjustments are made, such as providing magnifiers or large print books.

Blind students have no useful vision. They must rely on hearing and touch to learn. Some engage in repetitive, stereotyped movements such as rocking and rubbing their eyes. In an educational environment they usually acquire knowledge by reading Braille, listening to talking books and using some of the newer technological aids. Braille is a system of touch reading that uses embossed characters having different combinations of dots. Many modifications of the system have been developed since it was originated by Louis Braille, a Frenchman who was himself blind.

This Web site includes a list of abbreviations used in special education.